Integrins are heterodimer transmembrane receptors for the extracellular matrix and are composed of an alpha and beta subunit. Naturally-occurring integrin ligands include laminin, fibronectin, and vitronectin, and also include fibrinogen and fibrin, thrombospondin, and von Willebrand factor, and fibroblast growth factor 2. Integrins bind ligands by recognizing short amino acid stretches on exposed loops, particularly the arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) or like sequences. Upon ligation, integrins mediate cell adhesion, and initiate complex signaling events, alone or in combination with other types of receptors (such as growth factor receptors), and regulate cell spreading, retraction, adhesion, proliferation, survival, and migration. Integrin signaling is bi-directional. Intracellular signals mediates so-called “inside-out” signaling, which induces activation of the ligand binding functions of integrins. Integrin ligation activate “outside-in” signaling pathways, including, for example Src family kinases (SFK), the phosphoinositide 3-kinase, protein kinase B (PKB/Akt), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and Rac. See, e.g., Li Z, Delaney M K, O'Brien K A, Du X., Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 30(12):2341-2349, 2010.
Integrins are expressed and serve as major adhesion receptors on the surface of blood platelets, a type of blood cells that are critical in thrombosis and hemostasis. The major integrin expressed on platelet surface is the integrin αIIbβ3, also called glycoprotein IIb-IIIa (GPIIa-IIIa). Upon exposure to the site of vascular injury, platelets adhere to and spread on the injured or stimulated vascular endothelial cells or extracellular matrix, becomes activated and aggregate to from primary thrombus. Integrin αIIbβ3 mediates stable platelet adhesion, spreading and aggregation. This process normally serves to stop bleeding and prevent loss of blood (that is called hemostasis). Under certain conditions, such as at sites of atherosclerosis, platelets form a occlusive thrombus that block blood vessels, leading to ischemia of organs and tissues, causing such as heart attack and thrombotic stroke etc (Li Z, Delaney M K, O'Brien K A, Du X., Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 30(12):2341-2349, 2010.). Thus, inhibitors of integrin function are clinically used to prevent and treat thrombotic diseases. Integrins are also important in other physiological and pathological processes such as immunity, inflammation, angiogenesis and tumor progression and metastasis.
Three classes of integrin inhibitors are currently in clinical use or development: monoclonal antibodies targeting the extracellular ligand binding domain of the heterodimer (eg, Reopro, Eli Lilly, Indiapolis, Vitaxin; Medlmmune, Gaithersburg, Md.), synthetic peptides containing an RGD or KGD sequences (eg, Integrillin, Millennium Pharmaceuticals; cilengitide; Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany), and peptidomimetics (eg, aggrestat (Tirofiban), Merck, White House Station, N.J.; 5247; Pfizer, St Louis, Mo.).
The first integrin-specific drugs targeted the integrin αIIbβ3, which is central to hemostasis and plays an important role in platelet adhesion and thrombus formation. αIIbl β3 also functions in the inflammatory response. The first FDA-approved αIIbβ3 antagonists have proven benefit for indications, including acute coronary syndromes and prevention of myocardial infarction. However, the use of some of these drugs are limited due to their pharmacokinetic profiles—some drugs demonstrate rapid plasma clearance, rapid metabolism, poor oral bioavailability, and/or large variation in plasma levels. Also, some antagonists of αIIbβ3 integrin induced thrombocytopenia. See, e.g., Advances in Immunology, Volume 91, Elsevier Academic Press (San Diego, Calif.), 2006. A common and potentially life-threatening adverse effect of integrin inhibitor is bleeding (this is because intergrin is impotant in hemosrsis).